Diferenças entre edições de "Banco central"

Da Thinkfn

Deprecated: The each() function is deprecated. This message will be suppressed on further calls in /home1/thinkfnw/public_html/wiki/includes/diff/DairikiDiff.php on line 390
Linha 67: Linha 67:
  
 
===Operações no mercado===
 
===Operações no mercado===
Through [[open market operation]]s, a central bank influences the money supply in an economy directly. Each time it buys [[security (finance)|securities]], exchanging money for the security, it raises the money supply. Conversely, selling of securities lowers the money supply. Buying of securities thus amounts to printing new money while lowering supply of the specific security.
+
Através de operações no mercado monetário, o banco central afecta a [[massa monetária]] de um País directamente. Cada vez que ele compra instrumentos financeiros, trocando dinheiro pelo activo, ele aumenta a massa monetária. Cada vez ue vende instrumentos financeiros, ele baixa a massa monetária. Comprar instrumentos financeiros equivale portanto a imprimir dinheiro novo ao mesmo tempo que diminuí a oferta do instrumento em questão (presumivelmente aumentando o seu preço, e diminuindo a taxa de juro).
  
The main open market operations are:
+
As principais operações em mercado são:
* Temporary lending of money for [[collateral (finance)|collateral]] securities ("Reverse Operations" or "[[repurchase agreement|repurchase operations]]", otherwise known as the "repo" market). These operations are carried out on a regular basis, where fixed [[maturity (finance)|maturity]] loans (of 1 week and 1 month for the ECB) are auctioned off.
+
* Empréstimos temporários de dinheiro em troca de [[colateral]], em [[Repo]]s (acordos de recompra, repurchase agreements). Estas são operações regulares.
* Buying or selling securities ("[[direct operations]]") on ad-hoc basis.
+
* Compra e venda de instrumentos financeiros (operações directas).
* [[Foreign exchange market|Foreign exchange]] operations such as [[forex swap]]s.
+
* Operações no mercado cambial, como [[swap]]s de [[forex]];
  
All of these interventions can also influence the [[foreign exchange market]] and thus the exchange rate. For example the [[People's Bank of China]] and the [[Bank of Japan]] have on occasion bought several hundred billions of [[Treasury security|U.S. Treasuries]], presumably in order to stop the decline of the [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] versus the [[renminbi]] and the [[yen]].
+
Estas intervenções influenciam não só o mercado monetário, mas também o mercado cambial.  
  
 
===Requisitos de capital===
 
===Requisitos de capital===
All banks are required to hold a certain percentage of their assets as capital, a rate which may be established by the central bank or the banking supervisor. For international banks, including the 55 member central banks of the [[Bank for International Settlements]], the threshold is 8% (see the [[Basel Capital Accords]]) of risk-adjusted assets, whereby certain assets (such as government bonds) are considered to have lower risk and are either partially or fully excluded from total assets for the purposes of calculating [[capital adequacy]].  Partly due to concerns about [[asset inflation]] and [[repurchase agreements]], capital requirements may be considered more effective than deposit/reserve requirements in preventing indefinite lending: when at the threshold, a bank cannot extend another loan without acquiring further capital on its balance sheet.
+
Todos os bancos necessitam de manter uma certa percentagem dos seus activos como capital, pecentagem essa geralmente definida pelo banco central. Para bancos internacionais, incluindo os 55 bancos centrais membros do [[Bank for International Settlements]] (BIS), o limite são 8% (ver [[Acordo Basel]]) dos activos ajustados pelo risco (onde consoante o risco, os activos são ponderados diferentemente para apurar o rácio).  
  
 
===Requisitos de reservas===
 
===Requisitos de reservas===
Another significant power that central banks hold is the ability to establish reserve requirements for other banks. By requiring that a percentage of liabilities be held as [[cash]] or deposited with the central bank (or other agency), limits are set on the [[money supply]].
+
Outro poder significativo do banco central, é estabelecer os requisitos de reservas do sistema bancário. Ao exigir que uma determinada percentagem do passivo seja detida como [[dinheiro]] ou depósitos junto do banco central, isto diminui o efeito multiplicador do sistema bancário e permite controlar o crescimento da massa monetária.
  
In practice, many banks are required to hold a percentage of their deposits as [[Bank reserves|reserves]]. Such legal [[reserve requirement]]s were introduced in the nineteenth century to reduce the risk of banks overextending themselves and suffering from [[bank run]]s, as this could lead to knock-on effects on other banks.  ''See also [[money multiplier]], [[Ponzi scheme]].''  As the early 20th century [[gold standard]] and late 20th century [[dollar hegemony]] evolved, and as banks proliferated and engaged in more complex transactions and were able to profit from dealings globally on a moment's notice, these practices became mandatory, if only to ensure that there was some limit on the ballooning of money supply.  Such limits have become harder to enforce. The [[People's Bank of China]] retains (and uses) more powers over reserves because the [[Renminbi|yuan]] that it manages is a non-[[convertible currency]].
+
O principal objectivo de manter uma percentagem do passivo como activos fortemente líquidos, advém de evitar [[bank run]]s onde o banco teria dificuldade em responder no curto prazo a pedidos de levantamento de depósitos, ou ao retirar de financiamentos de curto prazo.
 
+
Even if reserves were not a legal requirement, prudence would ensure that banks would hold a certain percentage of their assets in the form of cash reserves. It is common to think of commercial banks as passive receivers of deposits from their customers and, for many purposes, this is still an accurate view.
+
 
+
This passive view of bank activity is misleading when it comes to considering what determines the nation's money supply and credit.  Loan activity by banks plays a fundamental role in determining the money supply.  The money deposited by commercial banks at the central bank is the real money in the banking system; other versions of what is commonly thought of as money are merely promises to pay real money.  These promises to pay are circulatory multiples of real money.  For general purposes, people perceive money as the amount shown in financial transactions or amount shown in their bank accounts. But bank accounts record both credit and debits that cancel each other. Only the remaining central-bank money after aggregate settlement - '''final money''' - can take only one of two forms:
+
*physical cash, which is rarely used in wholesale financial markets,
+
*central-bank money.
+
The currency component of the money supply is far smaller than the deposit component.  Currency and bank reserves together make up the monetary base, called [[Money supply|M1]] and [[Money supply|M2]].
+
  
 
===Requisitos de câmbio===
 
===Requisitos de câmbio===
To influence the money supply, some central banks may require that some or all foreign exchange receipts (generally from exports) be exchanged for the local currency. The rate that is used to purchase local currency may be market-based or arbitrarily set by the bank. This tool is generally used in countries with non-convertible currencies or partially-convertible currencies. The recipient of the local currency may be allowed to freely dispose of the funds, required to hold the funds with the central bank for some period of time, or allowed to use the funds subject to certain restrictions. In other cases, the ability to hold or use the foreign exchange may be otherwise limited.
+
Para influenciar a massa monetária, alguns bancos centrais podem requerer que alguma, ou a totalidade da moeda estrangeira, seja trocada junto do banco central para moeda local. Esta medida é geralmente usada em países com moedas não-convertíveis ou parcialmente convertíveis.
  
In this method, money supply is increased by the central bank when it purchases the foreign currency by issuing (selling) the local currency. The central bank may subsequently reduce the money supply by various means, including selling bonds or foreign exchange interventions.
+
Neste método, a massa monetária cresce quando o banco central compra moeda estrangeira (via emissão de moeda nacional). O banco central pode depois esterilizar esta emissão de moeda emitindo obrigações, ou fazendo o contrário (comprar moeda nacional usando moeda estrangeira).
  
 
===Requisitos de margem===
 
===Requisitos de margem===

Revisão das 09h52min de 9 de novembro de 2008

Editar.png
Artigo em edição
Este artigo está em processo de edição. Se puder, ajude a editá-lo.

Um banco central, banco de reserva, ou autoridade monetária é a entidade responsável pela política monetária de um País ou Estados membros (de uma união). A sua responsabilidade primária é manter a estabilidade da moeda nacional e controlar a massa monetária. Outras atribuições incluem controlar as taxas de juro, e actuar como o credor de último recurso para o sistema bancário, durante crises financeiras. Os poderes do banco central podem ainda incluir um papel supervisório/regulador.

A maioria dos países hoje em tia possui um banco central independente, ou seja, um que opera debaixo de regras desenhadas para evitar interferência política. Exemplos incluem o Banco Central Europeu ou a Reserva Federal Norte-Americana.

Alguns bancos centrais são detidos pelo Estado, enquanto outros são privados. Na prática existe pouca diferença, pois a quase totalidade dos lucros do banco central é, regra geral, entregue ao Estado.

Responsabilidades

O edifício do BCE em Frankfurt Funções típicas de um banco central (nem todos os bancos centrais exercem todas estas funções):

  • Implementar a política monetária;
  • Controlar a massa monetária da nação;
  • Credor de último recurso;
  • Gerir as reservas monetárias (ouro e divisas estrangeiras);
  • Regular e supervisionar a indústria bancária;
  • Estabelecer as taxas de juro de refêrencia e, por vezes, a taxa de câmbio;
  • Controlar a inflação;
  • Promover o crescimento económico.

Política monetária

United States Federal Reserve O banco central implementa a política monetária. No seu nível mais básico, isto envolve determinar que forma de moeda um país terá, seja uma moeda fiduciária, uma moeda garantida por reservas de ouro (algo proibido para membros do FMI), ou uma moeda indexada (pegged) a outras moedas.

Em alguns países, o banco central pode usar a moeda de outro país directa (numa união monetária) ou indirectamente (via indexação / peg). No caso de um peg, a moeda local é directamente garantida via as reservas de moeda estrangeira, e é estabelecido um rácio de troca entre a moeda local e a moeda estrangeira. É o caso do dólar de Hong Kong (HKD).

Em países com moeda fiduciária, a política monetária pode ter como significado o cumprir de alvos para as taxas de juro de referência, a massa monetária, ou outros objectivos perseguidos pela autoridade monetária.

Emissão de moeda

The Bank of England, central bank of the United Kingdom Muitos bancos centrais são bancos, no sentido em que possuem activos (moeda estrangeira, ouro, outros activos financeiros) e passivos. O principal passivo será a moeda emitida.

Os bancos centrais geralmente produzem lucros emitindo moeda e vendendo-a ao público em troca de activos que pagam juros, tais como obrigações do tesouro. Uma vez que a moeda não paga juros, a diferença gera lucros. Os lucros do banco central são geralmente devolvidos ao Estado, no caso do BCE, os lucros são devolvidos aos bancos centrais membros do sistema, sendo que este devolvem aos respectivos estados.

Intervenções na taxa de juro

The Reserve Bank of India, central bank of India Os bancos centrais controlam algumas taxas de juro de curto prazo, via o estabelecimento de taxas de referência e operações no mercado para atingir as taxas pretendidas. Estas taxas de juro de curto prazo por sua vez influenciam o mercado monetário em prazos mais longos, bem como o mercado de dívida de longo prazo. Esses mercados, por sua vez, determinam a disponibilidade e custo do crédito para a economia em geral, influenciando também mercados como o accionista.

Limites do poder

Contrariamente à percepção pouplar, os bancos centrais não são todos-poderosos. Os seus poderes são limitados. Os bancos centrais não controlam todas as taxas de juro, e é possível que os prazos mais longos divirjam significativamente dos objectivos do banco central quando este determina as taxas de juro nos prazos mais curtos. Além disso, o perseguir de objectivos na taxa de juro pode ter efeitos contrários ao pretendido nas taxas de câmbio.

A trinidade impossível de Robert Mundell é a formulação mais famosa destes limites do poder do banco central. Ela postula que é impossível determinar uma política monetária (taxas de juro), manter uma taxa de câmbio fixa e manter o movimento livre de capitais. Isto significa que nas economias ocidentais presentes, com livre movimento de capitais, os bancos centrais podem tentar influenciar as taxas de juro ou as taxas de câmbio, mas não ambas ao mesmo tempo.

Instrumentos da política monetária

Os principais instrumentos de política monetária são:

  • Operações no mercado;
  • Requisitos de reservas;
  • Política de taxas de juro (estabelecer taxas de referência);
  • Disponibilidade de empréstimos e depósitos junto do banco central;
  • Requisitos de capital (aqui, o regulador tende a ser o Bank for International Settlements, sendo que os bancos centrais tendem a apenas aplicar as regras daí emanadas);

Taxas de juro

O poder mais visível dos bancos centrais modernos, é a sua influência sobre as taxas de juro. Contrariamente ao publicamente aceite, os bancos centrais não estipulam uma taxa de juro fixa, geralmente estabelecem um objectivo, e actuam de forma a alcançá-lo, fazendo uso da sua capacidade de produzir tanta moeda fiduciária quanto necessário.

O mecanismo que permite alcançar as taxas de juro definidas como objectivo, baseia-se na capacidade do banco central emprestar ou tomar (em depósitos) tanta moeda quanto a necessária até que o mercado encontre o equilíbrio nas taxas por si pretendidas. Assim, sempre que as taxas (geralmente, de muito curto prazo/overnight) estejam acima do pretendido, o banco central emprestará dinheiro até que baixem, e sempre que estejam abaixo do pretendido, o banco central tomará dinheiro em depósitos até que subam.<ref>Artigo no Asia Times que explica a banca central moderna em detalhe</ref>

Embora o banco central influencie as taxas de juro de muito curto prazo via operações no mercado, as taxas de juro que estarão disponíveis na economia poderão diferir bastante das taxas de juro estabelecidas pelo banco central, isto devido a dois factores:

  1. Os prazos serão diferentes, com os devedores geralmente a contratarem prazos mais longos do que os estabelecidos pelo banco central;
  2. O risco de crédito, que determina que a taxa de juro suportada por cada devedor seja uma função do seu risco;

Um banco central típico tem várias taxas de juro de referência que pode estabelecer para influenciar os mercados:

  • Taxa de empréstimo marginal / taxa de desconto – uma taxa fixa à qual os bancos podem pedir emprestado dinheiro do banco central, via empréstimos colateralizados.
  • Taxa de refinanciamento / Federal funds rate - é a taxa mais publicamente visível, visto ser a publicamente anunciada. Na Europa serve como um floor (minimo) para as taxas praticadas entre bancos para financiamento. Nos EUA serve como um objectivo para as taxas a que os bancos emprestam entre si.
  • Taxa de depósito - É a taxa recebida pelos bancos que escolham depositar junto do banco central. Visto que não existe motivo para se depositar a uma taxa mais baixa junto de outros bancos, esta taxa funciona como floor (mínimo) para as taxas a que os bancos emprestam entre si.

Estas taxas influenciam directa e indirectamente as taxas praticadas no mercado monetário interbancário.

Operações no mercado

Através de operações no mercado monetário, o banco central afecta a massa monetária de um País directamente. Cada vez que ele compra instrumentos financeiros, trocando dinheiro pelo activo, ele aumenta a massa monetária. Cada vez ue vende instrumentos financeiros, ele baixa a massa monetária. Comprar instrumentos financeiros equivale portanto a imprimir dinheiro novo ao mesmo tempo que diminuí a oferta do instrumento em questão (presumivelmente aumentando o seu preço, e diminuindo a taxa de juro).

As principais operações em mercado são:

  • Empréstimos temporários de dinheiro em troca de colateral, em Repos (acordos de recompra, repurchase agreements). Estas são operações regulares.
  • Compra e venda de instrumentos financeiros (operações directas).
  • Operações no mercado cambial, como swaps de forex;

Estas intervenções influenciam não só o mercado monetário, mas também o mercado cambial.

Requisitos de capital

Todos os bancos necessitam de manter uma certa percentagem dos seus activos como capital, pecentagem essa geralmente definida pelo banco central. Para bancos internacionais, incluindo os 55 bancos centrais membros do Bank for International Settlements (BIS), o limite são 8% (ver Acordo Basel) dos activos ajustados pelo risco (onde consoante o risco, os activos são ponderados diferentemente para apurar o rácio).

Requisitos de reservas

Outro poder significativo do banco central, é estabelecer os requisitos de reservas do sistema bancário. Ao exigir que uma determinada percentagem do passivo seja detida como dinheiro ou depósitos junto do banco central, isto diminui o efeito multiplicador do sistema bancário e permite controlar o crescimento da massa monetária.

O principal objectivo de manter uma percentagem do passivo como activos fortemente líquidos, advém de evitar bank runs onde o banco teria dificuldade em responder no curto prazo a pedidos de levantamento de depósitos, ou ao retirar de financiamentos de curto prazo.

Requisitos de câmbio

Para influenciar a massa monetária, alguns bancos centrais podem requerer que alguma, ou a totalidade da moeda estrangeira, seja trocada junto do banco central para moeda local. Esta medida é geralmente usada em países com moedas não-convertíveis ou parcialmente convertíveis.

Neste método, a massa monetária cresce quando o banco central compra moeda estrangeira (via emissão de moeda nacional). O banco central pode depois esterilizar esta emissão de moeda emitindo obrigações, ou fazendo o contrário (comprar moeda nacional usando moeda estrangeira).

Requisitos de margem

In some countries, central banks may have other tools that work indirectly to limit lending practices and otherwise restrict or regulate capital markets. For example, a central bank may regulate margin lending, whereby individuals or companies may borrow against pledged securities. The margin requirement establishes a minimum ratio of the value of the securities to the amount borrowed.

Central banks often have requirements for the quality of assets that may be held by financial institutions; these requirements may act as a limit on the amount of risk and leverage created by the financial system. These requirements may be direct, such as requiring certain assets to bear certain minimum credit ratings, or indirect, by the central bank lending to counterparties only when security of a certain quality is pledged as collateral.

Exemplos

The People's Bank of China has been forced into particularly aggressive and differentiating tactics by the extreme complexity and rapid expansion of the economy it manages. It imposed some absolute restrictions on lending to specific industries in 2003, and continues to require 1% more (7%) reserves from urban banks (typically focusing on export) than rural ones. This is not by any means an unusual situation. The USA historically had very wide ranges of reserve requirements between its dozen branches. Domestic development is thought to be optimized mostly by reserve requirements rather than by capital adequacy methods, since they can be more finely tuned and regionally varied.

Supervisão bancária

In some countries a central bank through its subsidiaries controls and monitors the banking sector. In other countries banking supervision is carried out by a government department such as the UK Treasury, or an independent government agency (eg UK's Financial Services Authority). It examines the banks' balance sheets and behaviour and policies toward consumers. Apart from refinancing, it also provides banks with services such as transfer of funds, bank notes and coins or foreign currency. Thus it is often described as the "bank of banks".

Many countries such as the United States will monitor and control the banking sector through different agencies and for different purposes, although there is usually significant cooperation between the agencies. For example, money center banks, deposit-taking institutions, and other types of financial institutions may be subject to different (and occasionally overlapping) regulation. Some types of banking regulation may be delegated to other levels of government, such as state or provincial governments.

Any cartel of banks is particularly closely watched and controlled. Most countries control bank mergers and are wary of concentration in this industry due to the danger of groupthink and runaway lending bubbles based on a single point of failure, the credit culture of the few large banks.

Independência

Over the past decade, there has been a trend towards increasing the independence of central banks as a way of improving long-term economic performance. However, while a large volume of economic research has been done to define the relationship between central bank independence and economic performance, the results are ambiguous.

Advocates of central bank independence argue that a central bank which is too susceptible to political direction or pressure may encourage economic cycles ("boom and bust"), as politicians may be tempted to boost economic activity in advance of an election, to the detriment of the long-term health of the economy and the country. In this context, independence is usually defined as the central bank’s operational and management independence from the government.

The literature on central bank independence has defined a number of types of independence.

Legal independence
The independence of the central bank is enshrined in law. This type of independence is limited in a democratic state; in almost all cases the central bank is accountable at some level to government officials, either through a government minister or directly to a legislature. Even defining degrees of legal independence has proven to be a challenge since legislation typically provides only a framework within which the government and the central bank work out their relationship.
Goal independence
The central bank has the right to set its own policy goals, whether inflation targeting, control of the money supply, or maintaining a fixed exchange rate. While this type of independence is more common, many central banks prefer to announce their policy goals in partnership with the appropriate government departments. This increases the transparency of the policy setting process and thereby increases the credibility of the goals chosen by providing assurance that they will not be changed without notice. In addition, the setting of common goals by the central bank and the government helps to avoid situations where monetary and fiscal policy are in conflict; a policy combination that is clearly sub-optimal.
Operational independence
The central bank has the independence to determine the best way of achieving its policy goals, including the types of instruments used and the timing of their use. This is the most common form of central bank independence. The granting of independence to the Bank of England in 1997 was, in fact, the granting of operational independence; the inflation target continued to be announced in the Chancellor’s annual budget speech to Parliament.
Management independence
The central bank has the authority to run its own operations (appointing staff, setting budgets, etc) without excessive involvement of the government. The other forms of independence are not possible unless the central bank has a significant degree of management independence. One of the most common statistical indicators used in the literature as a proxy for central bank independence is the “turn-over-rate” of central bank governors. If a government is in the habit of appointing and replacing the governor frequently, it clearly has the capacity to micro-manage the central bank through its choice of governors.

It is argued that an independent central bank can run a more credible monetary policy, making market expectations more responsive to signals from the central bank. Recently, both the Bank of England (1997) and the European Central Bank have been made independent and follow a set of published inflation targets so that markets know what to expect. Even the People's Bank of China has been accorded great latitude due to the difficulty of problems it faces, though in the People's Republic of China the official role of the bank remains that of a national bank rather than a central bank, underlined by the official refusal to "unpeg" the yuan or to revalue it "under pressure". The People's Bank of China's independence can thus be read more as independence from the USA which rules the financial markets, than from the Communist Party of China which rules the country. The fact that the Communist Party is not elected also relieves the pressure to please people, increasing its independence.

Governments generally have some degree of influence over even "independent" central banks; the aim of independence is primarily to prevent short-term interference. For example, the chairman of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank is appointed by the President of the U.S. (all nominees for this post are recommended by the owners of the Federal Reserve, as are all the board members), and his choice must be confirmed by the Congress.

International organizations such as the World Bank, the BIS and the IMF are strong supporters of central bank independence. This results, in part, from a belief in the intrinsic merits of increased independence. The support for independence from the international organizations also derives partly from the connection between increased independence for the central bank and increased transparency in the policy-making process. The IMF’s FSAP review self-assessment, for example, includes a number of questions about central bank independence in the transparency section. An independent central bank will score higher in the review than one that is not independent.

História

In Europe prior to the 17th century most money was commodity money, typically gold or silver. However, promises to pay were widely circulated and accepted as value at least five hundred years earlier in both Europe and Asia. The medieval European Knights Templar ran probably the best known early prototype of a central banking system, as their promises to pay were widely regarded, and many regard their activities as having laid the basis for the modern banking system. At about the same time, Kublai Khan of the Mongols introduced fiat currency to China, which was imposed by force by the confiscation of specie.

The oldest central bank in the world is the Riksbank in Sweden, which was opened in 1668 with help from Dutch businessmen. This was followed in 1694 by the Bank of England, created by Scottish businessman William Paterson in the City of London at the request of the English government to help pay for a war. The US Federal Reserve was created by the U.S. Congress through the passing of the Glass-Owen Bill, signed by President Woodrow Wilson on December 23, 1913.

The People's Bank of China evolved its role as a central bank starting in about 1979 with the introduction of market reforms in that country, and this accelerated in 1989 when the country took a generally capitalist approach to developing at least its export economy. By 2000 the People's Bank of China was in all senses a modern central bank, and emerged as such partly in response to the European Central Bank. This is the most modern bank model and was introduced with the euro to coordinate the European national banks, which continue to separately manage their respective economies other than currency exchange and base interest rates.

Ver também

Referências

<references />

Links relevantes